| Country: | South Africa |
| Details of Formation: | Johnson Ngxobongwana, the most powerful shack leader in Crossroads, established the group in warlord style as a private force in the form of a ‘home guard’ grouping. After the end of his detention in September 1985, Ngxobongwana, who was aligned with the ANC/UDF side before, allied with the security forces, because his support in the population was decreasing. The first reported joined operation of Witdoeke and the security forces took place on May 18th, 1986, when they started to burn settlements in Crossroads. |
| Details of Termination: | Terminated with inauguration of President Mandela, as then not pro-government anymore. |
| Purpose: | The government allied with Witdoeke as it aimed to improve its access to the area and suppress the youth organizations and its affiliated progressive forces, including the ANC-aligned UDF. The government used the group to do the “dirty work” that the government could not achieve by other means, including the destruction of informal settlements and the relocation of its (often refugee) residents. Leaders of protests and shack leaders were particularly targeted by Witdoeke. |
| Organisation: | The Witdoeke are led by Mr Ngxobongwana. They cooperate and are aided by the police and the army. |
| Weapons and Training: | Police supplied the Witdoeke with arms and ammunition, which included grenade throwers. |
| Size: | A news source from June 1986 speaks of 1,000 Witdoeke members involved in an operation. Another news source mentions 3,000 members in that same month. |
| Reason for Membership: | Members might have been motivated by their right-wing ideology and their identification with the conservative migrant movement, which Witdoeke made use of. |
| Treatment of Civilians: | Most of the Witdoeke’s actions were directed against residents of squatter camps. They destroyed the squatters’ houses, forcedly relocated them, looted their belongings and assaulted people. One news source reports that in June 1986 they burnt the homes of 35,000 people, and a total of 50 people were killed. 60 000 people were left homeless. Police aided and colluded with the Witdoeke in these actions, for instance by teargassing the areas and no arrests were made. In one occasion they attacked union members of a mine after having been brought to the mine by mine security personnel by bus. |
| Other Information: | The Witdoeke’s name translates as “white handkerchiefs”, “white rag” or “white cloths”. They are called Witdoeke for the white arm and head bands they wear. Sometimes they are referred to as “the fathers,” which is a term widely used in the townships for older conservative blacks. |
| References: |
Office of the Presidency. 2003. “Aftermaths of Struggle: Government Delivery in Crossroads, Cape Town after 1994.” Ten Year Review, Project 6.7, Eight Area Case Studies of Development Delivery. South African History Online (SAHO). 2019. “Cape Town the Segregated city.” Accessed September 2021. https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/cape-town-segregated-city. |